Journal of Razavi Culture

Abstract Position of Imam Reza (PBUH) is regarded as the sensitive point of Shiite history. This sensitivity is considered from some perspectives: political and social changes of Abbasside era (and particularly caliphate of Mamoon) on the one hand and acceptance of position of Imam Reza (PBUH) on the other hand. Study of political tradition of Imam Reza (PBUH) is conducted based on the fact that political tradition of innocent imams is not only historical reality but also contains valuable advices and principles for their followers. Main focus of this paper is interaction of Imam Reza (PBUH) with despotism (particularly during position of Imam Reza). Some historical issues were raised as introduction of discussion and for showing social and political condition and two periods before his position and after his position have been studied. Classification of changes into periods before position and after position of Imam Reza (PBUH) has clarified results of movement and conduct of Imam (PBUH). In period after his position, some probabilities and doubts of Imam Reza (PBUH) are discussed and political positions of Imam are mentioned. Conclusion Section mentions some results of this paper by mentioning some instances of Hazrat’s tradition and emphasizes that we should note that fighting against and opposing to the oppressive rulers based on fixed principles of Shiite teachings (absolute negation of ungodly government ) and considering time and space circumstances (cooperation with foe of God by observing some considerations ) can take different forms and this is exactly the thing which has been manifested in tradition of the household of the prophet of Islam. What has been clarified based on these teachings is that discontinuation of struggle and opposition has not been ordered and it is not permissible to compromise with the oppressors even under the hardest conditions despite different forms of opposition to oppressive rulers but form of struggle and expedient things should be considered.

Abstract The fact that politics is a science formed in the framework of the principles of beliefs as well as the conditions and requirements of the time leads us to believe that there doesn’t exist unique treatments of this science in the outside world and that’s why we witness various approaches and theories in this regard given different conditions and schools of thought. Citing the principles and basics of the Razavi School that result from Imam Reza’s menology, the author of this article seeks to find an answer to the question, “What does politics mean in Islamic discourse?” To achieve this goal, the author introduces a theoretical framework that analyzes politics in four levels of ontology, epistemology, teleology and methodology. Analysis of Imam Reza’s menology reveals that in Razavi School of thought, politics is not the science of power, but the science of felicity. Thus, one can claim that the Islamic pattern for politics (based on Razavi School of Thought) can be an alternative theory to the current secular political science.

Abstract This paper aimed to focus on the political positions of Imam Reza^(AS) toward his political rival and enemy, i.e. Ma'moun to present some theoretical inferences and through this research, it aimed to answer the political questions of the contemporary world. The policy of Imam Reza^(AS) can be investigated in two aspects of "his policy toward Ma'moun" and "the policy towards Imam". Political behavior does not occur in vacancy, but it occurs in an interactive environment and through a chain of actions and reactions and it is a strategic behavior. The question raised here is: “What was the logic of interactions of Imam Reza^(AS) with Ma'moun?” It is hypothesized that Imam’s knowledge of Ma'moun was inspired by his knowledge about Satan and the triple tactics of bribing, threatening and hypocrisy focused on the relationship between leader and the followers. This Investigation was based on the acceptance of succession to the crown by Imam Reza^(AS). Initially, Ma'moun planned to seduce the Imam to the crown or to use hypocrisy in that regard, but when the Imam divulged Ma'moun's his hidden intentions, this phase ended very quickly. Luring Imam Reza^(AS) into accepting the caliphate and then offering him the successorship, followed by “threatening” to induce the “image that Imam was being lured” in non-discerning public opinions were some of the Ma'moun’s tactics that were all neutralized by the Imam and turned them into opportunities.

Abstract Delving into religious themes, the Shia literature has gained a unique status as viewed by lovers of immaculate Ahl al-Bayt family (AS), thus it has turned into a lively mainstream where religious teachings were passed  through an effective moral/educational approach and artistic language onto the next generations , those who need the knowledge wellspring and ethics from the Immaculate and Infallible Masumin (AS), therefore it ultimately leads the Shia beliefs of ancestors toward sublime ideals pursued by these leaders to human perfection. From this perspective,it is necessary to consider the distant centuries when the blatant cry from a wretched sounds resembled to  the dimmest human voice as the grapes of hope in a bitter silence flushed with infertility and the wilting spot overlaying their lips, it was while Ahmad Azizi set his heart on an Imam whose holy shrine provided a resort for those shelterless people who have released the "deer" of their aching heart before the thornless effects of his perception and they have fixed eyes beyond the cloud of invocation toward a rainfall that could revive their drought-stricken smile. This essay intends to examine, "Mother of the Deers" a masnavi poem composed by Ahmad Azizi in a descriptive-analytical method, in order to answer the question how the Imam Reza's complexion reflected in the ideology of this highly committed poet. The findings show that the symbolic masnavi portrays the call of perplexity in those shelterless peoplewho have, in their desperate loneliness, bound their plea to Imam Reza's sacred burial chamber where they could get away with the heartfelt pains from the oppressive dictators of day.

Abstract In the holy revolt of Imam Hussain assisting the intelligent architecture and the predicted braveness of that unique man of the era all of the political, social and cultural aspects of the of the event of Karbala have arranged in such an organized and unique arrangement that periods of time gradually increases to its depth and its effectiveness and also its strength. However one of the most important reasons of such efficiency is the tradition of the holy innocents (P. B. U. Th.) in vitalizing the memorial and the method of Imam Hussain (P.B.U.H).Tis research tries to analyze the cultural methods and procedures of Imam Reza (P.B.U.H) in order to protect and support of the holy revolt of Imam Hussain(P.B.U.H). Results show that he had had especial ways and methods such as: clarifying the sublime position of Imam Hussain(P.B.U.H.) among other Imams(P. B. U. Th.), expressing hatred of his murderers, clarifying the outcomes of respect or contempt to Ashura, provoking poet to say mournful poems for Imam Hussain(P.B.U.H.), venerating the soil of Karbala, recommending to visit his holy shrine and appointing especial times and also especial prayers for his pilgrimages and even clarifying divine results of such holy visits like: achieving to the position of closeness to God, having the privilege of being forgiven from sins, equality of such pilgrimage to hajj, and also establishing mournful ceremonies and its results like: protecting effects and  results of Ashura, knowing the reality of the religion, linking to Imam Hussain(P.B.U.H.), being forgiven from sins, liberating from the fright and the horror of the Resurrection.

Abstract The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between symbolic capital, based on the Iranian model - based on the is tradition of  Islamic Razavi lifestyle.
In this study, a question formed part of the six questions, It was clear that the symbolic capital of Iran - Islamic way of life and its dimensions (teaching religious life at any time - modeling household tradition - religious doctrine - the principle of proximity and distance - education servitude and worship - negligence) has a significant relationship and respectively 0.61, 0.73, 0.54, 0.42, 0.38, 0.45, 0.68 extrusion.In this study population, including residents of 15 districts of the city of Isfahan. Sampling in this study is a multi stage cluster and samples of Morgan is equal to 384. The results of this study indicate that the people themselves and their families are forced to observe Islamic regulations and follow the Islamic way of life most of the symbols of the Islamic economy, Islamic social symbols and cultural symbols of respect and to respect them and recruited for work in your life and to others and follow their suggestions.

Abstract Holy places like qadamgah (the place of holy people step), in different religions or Islamic sects, have always respected. Some of these qadamgahs in Iran belong to Imam Reza (AS) and his sisters or brothers. “Beyt-o-nour”, Hadhrat Ma'sumehʼs (SA) qadamgah, is one of the most important qadamgah.
In this study, “Beyt-o-nour” has been examined by anthropological approach. For this purpose, two types reports of its current situation, “objective” and “analysis”, have been provided by comprehensive introduction of target of study, historical identity and geographical location of the place.
In objective report, , the customs, ceremonies and pilgrims’ experiences or emotions have been examined by using the qualitative method of anthropology, cooperative observation technique, document review and interview. In analysis report, we tried to explore the meaning of the activists’ subjective and hidden layers.
Finding of study show “Beyt-o-nour” had given the Qomish people identity. Activists had been effective to deepen the effect of Hadhrat Ma'sumehʼs (SA) journey by simulating brotherhood relation between Imam Reza (AS) and Hadhrat Ma'sumeh (SA) to Imam Hussein (AS) and Hadhrat Zeinab(SA) brotherhood relation.

Abstract imamat is one of the important principles of Shia, and from political point of view, it forms the basis of political thoughts in this sect. Accordingly, leading the society based on the infallible imams’ viewpoints has always been emphasized in Shia’s literature in order to gain prosperity for individuals and community. Meanwhile, derivation of components of politics is one of the primary necessities which has to be taken in to account to gain the happiness. This article takes an attempt to investigate imam-Reza’s components of politics through searching in his sira, for it was driven from divine principles and should be a basis for arranging the political and social occasions in an Islamic country. The results of the descriptive-analytical method indicate that politics in sira of imam Reza contains principles such as negation of tyrant sovereignty and prohibition of cooperation with them, dissimulation (taqia), expediency, and nonviolence – besides the other political considerations.

Abstract Abstract:
Debate between Imam Reza (AS) and Emran Sābi has three major subjects: divine essence and attributes, quality of creation and characteristics and variety of creatures. The following article tries to explain and develop the second axis (quality of creation). This paper tries to cross with the image of the discourse of Imam (AS), explanations and exegesis of the recognized and reveal its logic with the Descriptive – Analytical Method. The axis of creation based on three significant point: creation quality, aim and relation between creator and creature. After described position and specifications of this subject, the author explains background and dissections about each subject. Review, interpretations, develop and scrutiny of Imam Reza’s (AS) speech and words are the major aim of this essay.
 

Abstract There are cultural issues in the era of Imam Reza (A.S.) that create review  of Islamic culture especially Shia Muslim culture. In this context, he took advantages by Enlightenment and using available fields and could solve these problems by doing extensive cultural activities and manage cultural system of the Shia community. The aim of this article is to answer this question that what cultural problems exist in the era of imam reza According to the cultural policy- making  approach and what actions did Imam Reza (A.S.) to solve them? By searching, collection and processing the information with descriptive analytical method, findings show that cultural problems during immate of imam reza include like  “shiite leadership peril”, “Ideological deviations in translation movement”, “the emergence of various religions and sects”, “the Rscientific-religious ignorance in the society”, “Rumors and lies against Ahlul Bayt (A.S.)”,”falsification and forghing the hadiths”  “government deception" He responded to these problems by a series of political actions (that his cultural policy making have shaped ) such as “explicit declaration of Shiite leadership”, “training elite students”, “scientific - religious meetings”, “scientific debates”, missionary trips”, “restoration of the prophetic hadiths”, “explaining the true traditions and cursing counterfeiters”, “cursing and excommunicating Some sects”, “developing all aspects of the spread of science”, “spread Shia”, “neutralizing the deceitful plots of government”.

Abstract   The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between symbolic capital, based on the model Iranian - Islamic is to strengthen the family in terms of Razavi lifestyle. In this context, a question formed part of the four questions that related to the symbolic capital based on the Iranian model - Islamic lifestyle factors, family strengthening Razavi and its dimensions (moral factors , economic factors, Emotional factors, social factors) studied these questions were significant and equal to is 0.76, 0.64, 0.42, 0.56, 0.43. The symbolic capital, based on the Iranian model - Islam is positive and stronger, stiffer, and the stability and strength of family ties is more. Symbols of economic, social icons and cultural symbols can have a strong relationship with the strengthening of the family institution and the more symbolic capital of the moral and religious family, and adhere to these symbols, better (in terms of quantity and quality) will be together

Abstract   The infallible Imams have been selected religious leaders for the human society, who explained the message of the divine prophets and were guides for people. A large of part of their efforts has been devoted to the cultural development of their own era. After Imams passed the ups and downs of the aftermath of the death of Prophet Muhammad, and after Imam Reza accepted the role of the Crown Prince of Al-Ma’mun and Imam’s martyrdom until the absence of Imam Mahdi, the ninth, tenth, and eleventh imams played this important role. The present article purports to examine the cultural polices of these Imams in this period. This research has collected the necessary information based on documentary and library methods, and has analyzed it in accordance with the cyclic model of policymaking. According to this model, analyzing the cultural policies involves identifying the problem, designing and selecting the ploy, and finally evaluating that policy. The cultural issues of this era have been classified in three groups: the issues of caliphate, the issues of public culture, and the issues of Shiite culture. Then, the cultural policies of the Imams of this era have been analyzed. These policies have influenced the fundamental layers of culture (beliefs and values) as well as the behavioral layers. 

Abstract Islam collectivity, meaning the overall Quran responsiveness and household to human guidance up to the judgment day, is one of the most important topics which have been stressed in Razavi courses. In Imam Reza’s approach (PBUH), Islam has an absolute collectivity in directing affairs which has explained all the needs of humanity to reach the way of happiness and perfection. One of the important topics which is effective for human happiness and has been stressed in the religious courses is ethics, which is of great importance in drawing and directing the way of Islamic life. In Islam, commitment to moral values and avoiding moral vices has been thoroughly stressed and in this aspect, ethic shoulds and shouldn’ts are completely explained in different fields of life. The following research, focusing on Razavi approach, has considered and analyzed Islam collectivity for drawing ethic indexes in three aspects: personal, social and economic, and in this view, in addition to considering the bases orienting Islamic ethics, has illustrated the most important indexes for each aspect. Conclusion: ethics, being founded upon divine bases, directs and orients all human life aspects and suggesting typical attitudes, provides happiness and perfection for person, family and the society, which its target is reaching to a pure life promised by the holy Quran.

Abstract Imam Reza (PBUH) has debated with various people including representatives of Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, Sabaeans, Heresies, Materialists, Islamic sects, and others.one of these debates is his detailed discussion with theologians of religions about tawhid and prophecy. This article is a case study to identify the monotheistic ethos of Imam Reza (PBUH) against the rivals. the debate has been analyzed in terms of morally and debate skills especially with its comparative study of criteria, conditions and morality of arguments in logic, also the findings of the science of communication. And this result is achieved: Imam Reza has used twenty methods and skills and ethical practices together. in the hardest and longest debates, he has advanced arguments and discussions to overcome by using a variety of debatable skills and superior communication methods, without being trapped in the smallest false or immoral argument.

Abstract  
The concept of lifestyle, despite its functional importance and incorporating ability, has been one of the most important explanatory frameworks in sociology and cultural studies in recent decades. Accordingly, the present article seeks to explore the possibility and areas of promotion, deepening and expanding religious lifestyle in Iranian society.The basic assumption is that in the Iranian society, influenced by the waves of modernity, there are different models of lifestyle along with the religious and traditional lifestyles and there exists a serious competition (in the cultural field and in particular to encompass a variety of lifestyles), as well. Therefore, the main issue of this study is to investigate the adequacy or accountability of religious models of lifestyle to meet the existing needs and how to adapt these models to the existing conditions. In this regard, Imam Reza's (P.B.U.H.) tradition has been notable as an example of the Islamic lifestyle, due to his lifetime in the center of Iranian society.The questions of the study are: What are the features and dimentions of religious lifestyle? What are the background and factors of the establishment, influence, and continuity of the Islamic lifestyle in Iranian society?
To collect the data, a questionnaire was given to the sociologist professors of Tabriz. Drawing on descriptive and analytical approaches, this study examined the problems and obstacles of the establishment and continuity of Islamic lifestyle (pure life) and suggested some solutions:first, the diversity of religious lifestyles should be noted. Second, the efforts of religious revivalists in contemporary periods to promote Islamic lifestyle should be addressed in the cultural policy centers.

Abstract Narrations proving the luminous creation of the Prophet (P.B.U.H) and his household (A.S) are quoted frequently, in various ways and with similar themes, by the Prophet and innocent Imams in Hadith sources of Shias. Although such narrations are abundant, just two are narrated by Imam Reza (A.S). In the current study, the document of the two narrations are first analyzed in order for validating the authenticity of their narrator. Then the author has attempted to find the original written sources in which the date of the narrations is cited in order to identify the oldest time they belong to. Moreover, the contents of these two narrations are evaluated based on and compared to that of other presumably-correct narrations in order to determine how much they correspond to one another. Finally, the study comes to the conclusion that, despite the weakness of the document of these two narrations, they are acceptable based on all historical and thematic evidences examined.

Abstract The structure and spatialization of cities, directly or indirectly, display the identity elements of the people of that city. Since change is the only constant thing in the city, preserving the cultural assets in a city is one of the fundamental challenges of the contemporary world; The identity of the people is based on the cultural assets left over from the past, and finding a middle way for the sustainable development of cities, along with preserving the identity indicators, has been the constant concern of researchers in this field. Among the social and cultural capitals of Iran is the personality of Imam Reza (AS), whose trip to Iran, as the greatest religious event in the history of Iran, has provided Iranians with a treasure of narratives; each of which, in addition to being considered as a cultural capital, have the ability to become a symbolic capital and create added value. The current research, using the descriptive-analytical method and using documentary and library sources, seeks to explain how it is possible to create symbolic capital in urban and rural spaces by using these cultural capitals and base the urban identity on this great social and cultural origin. It is possible to build a resilient identity and sustainable development of cities by relying on the capital capacity symbolized by the narratives surrounding Imam Reza (AS); A major part of this sustainable development can rely on religious tourism.

Abstract A glance at Razavi narratives shows that Imam Reza rectified people’s false beliefs regarding God. Most people had humanly perceptions of divine attributes. For them, God would become angry the way men did. Negating anthropomorphism of God, Imam Reza defined attributes such as guile, ridicule, ruse, knowledge, etc in a way that they would not create any imperfection in God. Besides, a practical method is evident for proof of God in Razavi narratives. He also answered the question of secrecy and divine Ehtejab and ascribed it to human sins. Today in religious philosophy, discussions such as proof of God, language of religion and divine secrecy are among the most dynamic ones and various theories are presented about them. These indicate that taking into account the Prophet (PBUH) and Imams’ narratives including Razavi ones can provide grounds for more accurate presentation of theoretical beliefs in modern language.

Abstract Using descriptive, historical method and with a look at hadiths narrated from Imam Reza (AS), this article tries to discuss Imam Reza’s views towards important issues of the society and government during the critical period of 183-203 A.H./799-818.The issue of Imam Reza’s successorship along with other influential factors such as the outbreak of deviant sects, the division of Abbasid caliphate and uprising by Alavis (the descendants of Imam Ali) led to modern questions, requiring answers arisen from an intellectual view. For this purpose, Imam Reza (AS) made use of several means to prove the truth of Shi’ite beliefs, including consideration of Islamic texts, defending the legitimacy of the Imams’ authority (wilayah), forming intellectual debates, making use of the language of intellect and reasoning, taking a scientific approach in debates and considering the level of the audiences’ understanding.
 

Abstract ‘Reason’ is one the unique bounties of Allah (SWT) to the humankind. This bounty is of so high status among human beings that everybody claims that they use it in the best way and consider their own speech and behaviour as reasonable and rational. Nevertheless, humans’ speeches and behaviours are so different and contradictory that cannot be considered as rational at the same time. The main question of this article is whether there are criteria for social rationality in Imam Reza’s teachings based on which one can evaluate Muslims’ social behaviour. Research in semantics, religious resources, etc. on reason and rationality shows 10 criteria for rationality in Imam Reza’s teachings. The criteria, among others, include hoping one’s doing good, being safe from one’s evil, aggrandising other people’s good efforts, not aggrandising one’s own good efforts, not giving up efforts to solve other people’s problems and not giving up scientific efforts. This article concludes that reason and rationality are not only neglected, but also are of high status in Imam Reza’s teachings. Considering the purpose of creation and the necessity of human’s development which should be fulfilled in this world, rationality has a certain definition. According to this definition, there are criteria in an Islamic society that should be applied carefully and without going to any extremes.

Abstract One of the main characteristics of Imam Reza's menology was his encounters with the representatives of other religions in the context of debates which turned into an arena for protecting Islamic ideologies, Imamate, Shia's legitimate beliefs and especially his rightfulness and competency to Imamate and Caliphate while al-Ma'mun –the Abbasid Caliph- sought to benefit from such debates otherwise. His solid arguments, citation to first-hand sources of Abrahamic religions and full knowledge over the languages and interpretations of Holy Scriptures are among the most amazing features of these debates which led to Imam Reza's victory and the other party's failure at the end of each debate.
This article answers questions including: Discourse-analysis speaking, how are Imam Reza's debates analyzed? What aspects of the both parties of such debates are revealed during these analyses? What are the characteristics and capacities of Imam Reza's debates in terms of verbal communication and religious propagation?
By answering these questions, this paper seeks to view these debates differently and examine them critically by applying critical discourse analysis in form of variables and functional items. Exploring Imam Reza's debates with the representatives of other religions and sects with an eye on words, perspective, metaphor, historical coherence, citation and structural emphasis indicates that though proving his rightfulness and rejecting the other party's claims, Imam Reza avoided unethical dispute and used such debates as a platform to prove Imamate and the Holy Prophet's Seal of Prophecy through precision, accuracy, politeness and respect.

Abstract Religious disputes have always been a challenge for thinkers and theologians to the extent that they have had an attempt to settle them peacefully. In this regard, by fair behavior, avoiding the extremes of excess and deficiency and observing human rights conventions, great men will lead human society toward progress, materially and spiritually.
Using a descriptive -analytical method and authentic historical sources, the present study attempts to investigate what strategies were used by Imam Reza (A.S) to settle the religious disputes. Imam Reza avoided to use pluralistic approaches for settling religious and sectarian disputes, since they result in confusion of human faith and intellectuality. Rather, in the form of guiding and purposeful debates, he used to provide answers to scientific questions and settle religious disputes by proving the legitimacy of valid beliefs and explaining false ones, emphasizing the principles of audience analysis and thematic analysis, observing justice, fairness and respecting others without any bias, as well as being fully aware of all aspects of discussions.

Abstract One of the brilliant aspects of Imam Reza (A.S), which is reported in history, is the rain prayer which Imam Reza made it during his time in Khorasan.  This event is very important and can be analyzed from various aspects both from educational and social-political aspects.  Therefore, attention to different dimensions of this section From Imam Reza's Sīra, it can be the source of many issues in the Islamic community.  In this article, an attempt has been made to reconsider the historical event of the Imam's rain prayer, functions and effects of the rain prayer based on in two Social-political functions and educational practices dimensions  has checked and explained.  The findings of this research, which are based on the validity of the nature is analytical-descriptive method, And based on credit is the historical-traditional issue, Shows the cultural struggle with the “Taghout” government , creating social unity and vitality, Publication of “Tawhīd” (monotheism) and the general tendency towards religion are functions of the rain prayer in Sīra Razavi.

Abstract Organizational citizenship behavior and its desired results are vital and critical in organizations. This issue is more important in spiritual and religious organizations such as Astan Quds Razavi. Therefore, this study investigates the relationship between spiritual intelligence, organizational citizenship behavior and moderating role of duty background in the Imam Reza (AS) holy shrine. With regard to the goal, this research is of applied model. Also, the research method is descriptive correlational. The population of this study consists of 705 employees working in the religious places. According to the Morgan’s table, 247 people were classified through random sampling and selected as the sample of this study to complete the questionnaire. Data collection tools were organizational citizenship behavior standard questionnaires of Buil et al. (2016) and spiritual intelligence standard questionnaire of Abdul Rahman and Medi Shah (2015). In order to analyze the data, structural equation modeling method was used along with LISREL and SPSS softwares. The result shows that the spiritual intelligence enhances the organizational citizenship behaviors. Also, the positive moderating role of duty background in the relationship between spiritual intelligence and organizational citizenship behavior was confirmed.

Abstract Razavi Islamic Jurisprudence book which is an influential work on Imamie Islamic Jurisprudence communities, is known as a compilation written by Imam Reza (A.S.) according to several historical evidences in the Islamic Jurisprudential sources and bibliographies such as: the finder reporting and the original version reciprocating, access to old manuscripts by emphasizing the writing of the book by Imam Reza (A.S.), exclusion of the possibility of fabrication and forgery in the intellectual monopoly of the book written by Imam Reza (A.S.) or its fallacious and fabrication; or by resorting to documents list such as: introducing a version of the book narrators of Imam Reza (A.S.) on Shia sources list, and referring to intratextual evidences compiled by one of the Imams (A.S.) and intratextual evidences compiled by Imam Reza (A.S.). In the present study, after reinvestigating the history of accessing this work and explaining the reasons and evidences mentioned, as well as validating the criticisms of the opponents of this theory, and analyzing misleading and acceptable criticisms in an analytical-descriptive style, the certainty of citations proposition to prove the theory of the writing of Razavi Islamic Jurisprudence by Imam Reza (A.S.) has been critically rethought and it was concluded that resorting to these reasons and evidences to all facts affecting the analysis and understanding of the author's work have been neglected. On the other hand, excluding the handwriting of Imam Reza (A.S.) from this book, it is impossible to consider it as a unique work attributed to a single author.